Fitts and Posners Phases of Learning Essay Example for Free

Fitts and Posners Phases of Learning Essay Describe Fitts and Posners phases of learning and explain how you would structure practises to enhance a performance In this essay I will explain Fitts and Posners phases of learning and how I would structure practises to enhance performance. By practising a skill we can become better. Fitts and Posner theories were that everyone has to go through stages of learning, known as the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning. Depending how good a person is at a particular sport, they will fall into a certain category. An example of this is Wayne Rooney. At a young age he was introduced to football and played amateur football from a young age, becoming one of the youngest strikers in football history. However by learning a skill in sport involves the development of skills by practice. An example of this is shooting practise you can only become good by practising to kick the ball in between goalposts. Until a person becomes confident enough that they score a goal, they will naturally fall into the next category. The three stages of learning can be divided into two main categories; associationists and cognitivists. Associationists views learning of a sport as the link of particular stimulus and particular responses. Cognitivists see it as a function of the brain, where we learn through the understanding and knowledge of the sport. There are 3 stages of learning according to Fitts and Posner. They are: Cognitive v Associative v Autonomous Cognitive This is the initial stage of learning and is essential if the learner is to process successful through the other stages and is to move a stage where the skill can be performed. The cognitive stage involves formation of a mental picture of a skill. The most efficient way is from a demonstration, which allows them to see the key requirements and to work through the performance mentally. Visual guidance is one of the best ways to make others understand, and so that the person learning can see the correct method to perform the skill. They will then attempt to perform. Success rate is usually 2/3 out of 10. The cognitive stage initially concentrates more on the skill, rather than the game. There is a lack of control and consistency. Trial and error is also a key way to learn. Reinforcement of this can be by giving positive feedback. Questions will arise when learning skills of a sport if the skill is not correctly learnt. The learner will be confronted with some very specific, cognitively oriented problems. Examples of this are, How do I score? What is the aim of this game? If so, where are the positions for players? If the mental picture is not correct the skill will not develop. It is important that the coach explains very thoroughly what is required of each athlete. Associative Learning at the associative stage means that the skill is becoming more consistent, but there are still some errors. The simple element of the skill has been grasped however the performer still refers back to the mental picture. The performer can begin to detect errors and begin to realise his/her mistakes. Feedback should encourage a feeling of a well performed skill. This means that the performer will begin to enjoy the sport. Success rate is 5/7 out of 10. Verbal guidance is essential as it is used in the associative stage. Some people never exceed this phase. An example of this is a semi-professional shot-put thrower. Some performers return to the cognitive stage to refer to the mental image of the skill. Also, some professional players return from autonomous stage to the associative stage if they have an injury they need to work hard and rise up to the expected standard of an autonomous performer. Autonomous Learning at the autonomous stage is where the skill is done without conscious thought. The movements of the performer are fluent, consistent and athletically pleasing. There is an advanced stage of learning where the elements of the skill have become part of long term memory and are automatically produced in response to a an appropriate stimulus. The skill is automatic. The attention of the performer focuses on the next movement, for example tactics. Consistent practise is required to reinforce being at the autonomous stage. Success rate is 9/10 out of 10. In tennis for example a player would be able to perform a serve whilst contemplating what their opponent will do next, rather than being focusing on the technical side of the serve. Not all performers reach the autonomous stage in all skills. For those who do, if practise is not maintained revision to the associative stage will occur. Closed skills such as throwing events can be finely tuned so that a high level of performance can be produced. Learning in its simplest form is the development of a position where we cant perform a skill to a stage where we can perform it. Knapp, 1973 The quote means that learning is a more or less permanent change in performance brought about by experience. Knapp is suggesting that once something is learnt, it remains with us, thus supporting the statement: Once you learn to ride a bike, you never forget. Learning in sport involves the development of skills through practice, hence the saying: Practice makes perfect. Fitts Posner recognised that as we learn, we do not move directly from cant to can. They suggest that the learning process is sequential we move through specific stages/phases as we learn. These stages are hierarchal, in other words each stage must be passed through before the next one is achieved. Ivan Pavlov was a scientist who conducted experiments on the response of dogs. He taught them that when a bell was rung, the dogs would learn to understand that it was time to eat. These findings link into Fitts and Posners phases of learning because a particular response with a stimulus can give a great benefit to sports performances. This approach can be used to mentally prepare the athlete for the sport. The player may be taught switching into the zone whilst walking onto the pitch. However in order to achieve this, the player would need to gradually progress to that level of conditioned stimulus. In order to teach and improve somebodys skills at a sport, I would structure a 6 week Personal Exercise Programme (or PEP). A PEP would help improve the skill of the performer, and help the learner to enhance their performance. This way the performer can test to see how long it takes him to master one specific skill. As a trainer I would encourage the performer and give feedback and give a clear understanding to the performer what they are doing right and wrong. Doing something wrong doesnt mean its negative feedback it would just acknowledge the performer on how to improve, becoming more successful. I would ensure that the performer practices the skill consistently and monitor any improvements in their ability. In a professional football match I would help keep the players to the standard that is required by making them do drills as a team. Warm-ups are essential as they prevent muscles getting damaged. I would also make sure that the stamina of the players is always high; this can be achieved by the Cooper run. In a tennis match the athlete must be able to complete a full match. There are no substitutions so the athletes stamina must be high. By hitting a ball for a long period of time every other turn there must be a large amount of upper body strength. In order to help the athlete achieve this, the coach should set the athlete physical training such as sprints, press-up, sit-ups and bicep curls. Technique is needed when serving, volleying; as being able to retain balance quickly is essential. An example of this is Andre Agassi. he focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and became one of the fittest players on the tour. His upper-body strength allowed him to bench press 350 lb (159 kg), which helped him retain pace on his shots late into a match, as well as adding to his serve power. He had remarkable endurance and rarely appeared tired on court. Golf is a sport where the athlete has to be very concentrated on the game. Having a perfect technique allows one to compete to a high level. In order to help raise concentration levels the coach must remove all apprehension and put the athlete in a confident frame of mind. To help an athlete raise concentration before a game the coach could give the athlete a structured diet. Junk food will slow down the concentration rate. Tiger Woods had a bad putting strike so he went home and perfected it. Well, thats one of the worst putting weeks Ive had in a long time, very frustrating. When I get home I am going to practise until I get it right. References: * Advanced P.E for Edexcel Heinemann * http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/pavlov/readmore.html. * http://www.answers.com/topic/andre-agassi * http://www.asapsports.com/show_interview.php?id=410149

Managing Intelligence in National Security

Managing Intelligence in National Security At which stage of the intelligence cycle is failure most likely to occur, and why? The most common, traditional paradigm for managing intelligence ‘flow’ is a cycle of four components: direction, collection, processing, and dissemination. Direction comes from policymakers: heads of government agencies, heads of state, senior government officials tasked with overseeing intelligence, and the like, who provide both specific and general roadmaps to intelligence agencies as to how they should apply their resources to defend national interests both at home and abroad. Collection is the process by which intelligence is gathered in a variety of fashions: via HUMINT – intelligence data collected by personal, human effort ‘on the ground’; electronically, e.g. SIGINT (interception of signals), IMINT (satellite, photographic imagining intelligence), etc. Processing is the analysis of the data obtained in the collection component, the means by which the nature, relevance and relative importance of the collected intelligence is ascertained by mea ns both scientific and intuitive. (Arguably, processing is the most important component of the cycle, but the least amount of money is often budgeted to this component of the cycle.) Dissemination refers to the process by which the relevant information is channeled to the appropriate decision-making party within a timetable commensurate with the importance of the information collected and the results of the processing/analysis. Each of the four components of the cycle is fraught with peril for failure and failure in any one component can be catastrophic. The two arenas where failure is most likely to occur, however, are collection and analysis. Failures in collection are often due to lack of applied resources, whether technological or human. The debate has raged for decades over whether HUMINT is superior to intelligence data gathered by increasingly advancing technological wizardry. Most likely, a healthy application of and symbiosis between the two is critical. There is no substitute for the personal presence of agents, operatives, and contacts on the ground, substantially integrated with useful components of whichever society in which they are placed. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was woefully lacking in human collection efforts in Afghanistan in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, and in Iraq during the same time period (though to a lesser extent). Compounding matters was the dearth of CIA field operatives or domestically-based personnel who spoke the common languages of the Middle East – Arabic, Farsi, Pashtun, etc. However, rapid advances in computer technology have enabled the collection of vast quantities o f raw intelligence data – telephone calls, e-mails, radio transmissions, etc., and intelligence agencies who lack such technology will invariably be at a massive disadvantage. Failures in processing/analysis can occur when the collection apparatus has delivered all of the puzzle pieces, usually due to either a collective/institutional, or individual inability to connect the proverbial dots and turn raw data into actionable intelligence conclusions. The 9/11 attacks are a regrettably perfect example of failures in analysis. Discrete entities in the U.S. intelligence community – the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and CIA, as well as other government agencies (the Immigration and Naturalization Service and Federal Aviation Administration) – all possessed nuggets of raw data which if analyzed properly, would clearly have indicated (in fact, some say did definitively indicate) that an Al-Qaida attack on the U.S. using airplanes was imminent. However, these entities failed to share this data and collaborate cooperatively to analyze it. Turf warfare, egos, bureaucratic inertia, and competing political agendas can easily cause fatal paralysis in intelligence processing. The costs of covert action tend to outweigh its benefits. Discuss. The question of whether the costs of covert action outweigh its benefits depend greatly on the context of the covert action; is it an ongoing, multi-year low-intensity campaign involving numerous agendas, or is it an urgent, high-priority single mission designed to achieve a massive single strategic goal? Also, the notion of costs must be defined in relative terms – monetary costs, human costs, opportunity costs; indirect costs (unintended consequences); other abstract and intangible costs such as ethics, legal ramifications, etc. The CIA has long been involved in low-intensity covert actions in a variety of nations, with varying degrees of success. The Iran-Contra affair, in which Reagan administration officials diverted proceeds from the sale of arms to Iran to anti-Marxist Nicaraguan rebels in the mid-1980s, was costly in both monetary terms (hundreds of millions of pounds) and legal terms – a number of Reagan administration officials were subjected to criminal charg es for their roles in facilitating both the operation itself and the cover-up of the operation (the American Congress had passed a law forbidding U.S. government direct aid to the Contras). However, in the wake of 9/11, when the U.S. government concluded that decisive force was required to respond to Al-Qaida’s attack on U.S. soil, the CIA and DoD (Department of Defense) were authorized by President Bush to spend whatever was necessary to execute some of the most bold covert actions – particularly in HUMINT undertaken by American intelligence agencies in decades. HUMINT capacity at the CIA eroded as, ironically, the moral excesses of covert activities of the 1960s-1970s caused a backlash that choked off HUMINT funding priority; also, the end of the Cold War led many policymakers to conclude that the CIA’s resources were better spent on electronic means of collection, as covert action can be prohibitively expensive in both time and money. However, the CIA was authorized and ordered to act boldly and within a matter of weeks, had substantial HUMINT on the ground in Afghanistan both collecting data and coordinating with DoD military planners to levera ge intelligence into actionable military plans. The goal: to defeat the Taliban, who had hosted Al-Qaida in a darkly symbiotic relationship which held the country in a repressive stranglehold and provided safe haven for the training of thousands of would-be terrorists. Mindful of the failure of the Soviet Union’s 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, CIA realized that only an asymmetrical application of covert power (mirroring Al-Qaida’s approach to the 9/11 attacks, ironically) would be effective, as a conventional ground war could be too costly in both manpower and lives on both sides. A shrewd application of HUMINT, technology, and good old-fashioned money engineered the relatively rapid American triumph in Afghanistan in 2001. CIA operatives on the ground descended into Afghanistan with little support, made contact with sympathetic Afghan warlords, dispensed hundreds of millions of dollars to other warlords and tribal leaders, in some cases simply to bribe them into switching sides and fight against the Taliban and Al-Qaida. These same operatives also used hand-held laser GPS equipment to target enemy strongholds and transmit this location data directly to U.S. aircraft, who in turn dropped laser-guided bombs with deadly efficiency. The cost was in the billions, but the victory was swift, decisive, and – given the ramifications of the triumph – extremely inexpensive, relatively speaking. As such, not all covert operations are too costly to make them worthwhile. Discuss the importance of open sources collection in comparison to clandestine collection. Is clandestine collection indeed more valuable? Open-source(s) collection refers to the collection of actionable or otherwise valuable/relevant intelligence data from publicly available sources. Prior to the advent of the Internet, this methodology was not without value, but in many cases prohibitively time-intensive, and less prone to yield results. Though the type of information available to the public at a local library might surprise a layperson, it is dwarfed by what is now available on the Internet to anyone with a personal computer. In some cases, an intelligence analyst sitting at a desk in London can gather valuable, reliable information about conditions on the ground in a city halfway across the globe – weather conditions, local news, political and business developments, cultural idiosyncracies. Other sources of OSINT, as it is termed, include diverse sources as consultations with experts in various fields within academia or the business world, professional associations, professional conventions, to simple thought ful Google searches and reading of blogs. The trend globally is towards an ever-increasing amount of openness of information exchange thanks to the Internet. Increasingly sophisticated ‘sweeper’ data-mining software technology, which is often used to collect and in some cases process large volumes of conventional communication traffic, are being utilized by the CIA to scan millions of websites, searching for key terms, phrases, contexts, which might indicate that human review would be advantageous or essential. Instructions to make improvised explosive devices can easily be posted on websites, and 21st century intelligence collection must conform to this new reality. In comparison, the best use of clandestine intelligence vis-à  -vis OSINT efforts is to obtain highly specialized or esoteric intelligence information that is either intentionally kept confidential (classified government secrets, for example). OISINT processing and analysis can help frame and answer a number of general questions and/or analyze larger patterns and trends, whereas clandestine intelligence can help answer targeted, specific questions that cannot be ascertained by either human or computer OSINT efforts. For example, in response to the intelligence reforms demanded in the wake of the failure to anticipate and prevent the 9/11 attacks, the CIA formed an â€Å"Open Source Center† (OSC) to focus specifically on OSINT. In 2004, OSC used OSINT technology to discover that a new, powerful Chinese submarine had been constructed in an underground location heretofore unknown to the American military and intelligence community. The tip-off? Chinese military bloggers, one of whom posted a photograph of the impressive new Chinese submarine (the Yuan-class attack submarine) on a publicly viewable website. CIA in turn employed HUMINT and electronic surveillance to ascertain where the submarine had been constructed and what its operational abilities might be. In a less dramatic example, OSC searched Iraqi websites for postings related to the use of IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices), in some cases gathering actionable data which helped avert the use of these deadly terrorist tools. (The inad vertent destruction of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in 1999 by NATO bombs might have been averted by some of the most rudimentary OSINT – having a human operative walk down the street to make sure the military target’s address was correct.) Clandestine collection activities, particularly HUMINT efforts, will always have their place, but in a world where information is available anywhere, anytime, at the click of a mouse, intelligence agencies must dedicate significant resources to OSINT.

A brief history of Fidel Castro

A brief history of Fidel Castro This paper will discuss a brief history of Fidel Castro, his leadership styles, characteristics, and the determinants that occurred during his rise to prominence. It provides his sources of power, and further examines his effectiveness or non effectiveness as a leader. Research on Fidel Castro and his leadership was conducted through online sources which include three academic. Importance: What relationship could be found between the Fidel Castro, the followers, and the situation? What were his perceived positive and negative qualities? What outstanding traits could be detected within Fidel Castro? About Fidel Castro Fidel Alejandro (Ruz) Castro was born in Biran Cuba on August 13th 1926 to Angel Castro and Lina Ruz in the Eastern Province of Cuba. Fidel was the third child of his siblings by father, Angel Castro. Although he was born out of wedlock, he was privileged to upper-middle class living environments. He was educated in a private boarding school, attended college and later went on to Harvard Law School. At Harvard, he became engrossed in the political climate in Cuba especially as it relates to the nationalism, anti-imperialism and socialism. (Castros Biography, 2010) Castro was married to Mirta Diaz Balart. They had one son whose name was Fidelito which meant little Fidel. Her family was wealthy and Fidel Castro capitalized on this opportunity and as a result was exposed to a much wealthier lifestyle and at the same time, was able to network with key political associations. The marriage ended after six years because of a lack of financial support for his family. Mirta was his second wife. (Castros Biography, 2010) Castros enthusiasm for reform and social justice led him to the Dominican Republic in an attempt to help overthrow Mr. Rafael Trujillo. Although this attempt was not successful, this did not deter him from the fight for social justice. He was part of an anti communist party that was formed with the aim of exposing government corruption, developing strategies to gain economic independence and implement social reform in Cuba. Although his attempts to overthrow the leader at the time, General Fulgencio Bartista failed, he never gave up. He was sentenced to jail for those attempted coups but continued the fight to become Cubas leader, in an effort to make the changes he was hoping to fulfill. This long struggle was finally realized on January 1st, 1959 when he assumed the leadership of the government. He appointed his brother, Raul Castro the duties of commander of the armed forces on February 15th 1959. Leader type and history Charismatic leaders are exceptionally self-confident, are strongly motivated to attain and assert influence, and have strong conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs (House Aditya, p. 416). Fidel Castro is a charismatic and transformational leader. Nahavandi states that transformational leadership includes three factors, of the three we identified these to define Castro; charisma and intellectually simulated that in itself helped Castro achieve the drastic change he sort for Cuba. That is the social and political reform he aimed to achieve as a leader. Were there any cultural characteristics that helped him in leadership? Would he be an effective leader elsewhere? The countrys culture played an important role in the behavior of Fidel Castro. His personality and character evolved as he joined groups and eventually they developed their own culture. Cultural characteristics affect who we consider an effective leader. In Trompenaars study of cross cultural organizational culture, Castro fits in the family category which states that they are power oriented, caring leader; he cared deeply for the poor so much that he took forceful from the rich to give to the poor of his beloved Cuba. He also was focused on building relationships but these relationships should not be overweighed by the outside source. We saw he formed partnership with a number of counterparts such Che Guevara of Mexico, the Soviet Union, Grenada and Africa. (Castros Biography, 2010 and Navandi 2009) Does he reflect any of the concepts of early theories of leadership? Castro demonstrated leadership traits very early in his childhood. Trait theory suggests that leaders are born not made. His qualities as a leader further reiterated this point. Castro had a natural ability to influence his followers. He understood the people of Cuba especially the poor. This had a positive impact on the people of Cuba especially knowing that he was not born into a poor family and was therefore for the poor. As stated in the text Contingency Era theory leadership view is that personality style, behavior of effective leaders depends on the situation in which there are placed (Nahavandi 2009). This was evident when Castro took the opportunity to be a liberator to the people in the time when they were very dissatisfied with the leadership style of the Bartista government. He saw an opportunity to gain trust and followers, and as the person he was took full advantage of the situation. His approach was successful. hence the reason for the massive followers. (Castros Biography, 2010) Castro, because of his characteristics was deemed to become a leader, regardless of the context. Research shows that Castro demonstrated an A2 decision style in the normative decision making model. Nahavandi states that A2 leaders seek specific information however they make the decisions alone. What are the traits and characteristics that make him a leader? As with all leaders he had both positive and negative qualities. In researching, it was noted that the positive qualities at his early stage as Cuban leader outweighed the negatives. His motivation helped the lower class Cubans raise their level of self esteem. He was able to manage the country well, despite the restrictions placed from outside sources namely the United States. As a result, he remained true to his beliefs and values. Most of all he was a challenger; he inspired his followers, took on great responsibilities and showed courage in the face of danger. In an effort to accomplish his goals and objectives, he took the lead in all the coups that were attempted. He never left his followers to enter the battles of war alone. On the other hand, he was a stubborn leader who led with an iron fist. At times, he was believed to be over confident and it was mainly because of his educational background and experience. (Nahavandi 2009) He was an authoritarian leader and as such he was not willing to accept change. This was evident during the early part of his leadership. He was indeed coercive; he displayed this behavior when his subordinates were punished for not following his orders. In our research, we identified Castro as a type A leader and the Nahavandi states that the characteristics and behavior that accompany these types of leaders are their need to be in control. Throughout the entire research there were reports that stated Fidel Castros need to gain control of Cuba and to be its leader. His demonstration of poor delegation, like to work alone and hard working are all characteristics which he possess and are characteristics of Type A leaders. (Nahavandi 2009) Mr. Castro is relatively medium Machiavellian because of his effectiveness as a leader and has had a history of easily manipulating his followers in an effort to achieving his goals and objectives; that was to change Cubas political climate, taking care of the needs of the poor and win support through his message and passion for his people. Careful analysis shows that based on the Myer Briggs Type indicator where he was a little of all the categories. For example, as the sensation thinker he would establish rules and regulations, jump to action too quickly at times and push others to get to the point. The others are not suited to his character. As a sensational feeler, the most applicable is the reluctance to accept change. In the intuitive thinker and feeler categories, these are the two that would apply to Fidel Castro, architect of progress and ideas and good communicator. (Nahavandi 2009) Leadership Style of Fidel Castro Based on our research, Fidel Castro has displayed leadership styles of being both a charismatic and transformational leader. He was more a dictator-charismatic leader. He was able to gather his followers through his charisma as opposed to gathering them through his external power of authority. Fidel was always concerned about the well-being of his people, especially the less fortunate ones. Thus he took away wealth and property from the more fortunate Cubans and distributed to the less fortunate. He had a vision for the people of Cuba and thus was able to use his vision through the people to expand his power. One of his visions was to ensure that the less fortunate had their essential needs. In addition, he promised the people of Cuba free education in which he delivered. By doing this he believed that he was being very sensitive to the needs of his people. Although Fidel was a charismatic leader, he frequently displayed a dictatorship leadership style. The people of Cuba were not allowed freedom of speech. Under his ruling the people of Cuba were not allowed to leave Cuba for a vacation elsewhere. People who did not support his party were reprimanded and not given equal opportunities. Some people of Cuba were even afraid to utter the name, Fidel Castro. Instead they would make a beard pulling sign in order to make someone know they were referring to him. Cubans were also denied access to certain beaches and hotels. This had caused insults to the people of Cuba. (Halliday, 2008). Another element of leadership style displayed by Fidel Castro, was his ability to be a transformational leader in that he had the ability to influence his followers ethics, values and standards. He also showed deep emotions towards his followers. He would also articulate the problems within the system and would endeavor to solve those problems. He also empowered his followers by use of his own strengths and belief. (Marques, 2010) Leadership perspectives of non-profits Leaders of non-profit organizations are associated with having a social mission which include saving the environment, feeding the home and housing the homeless. These leaders also reflect and support ideological goals. Leaders of non-profit organizations also enjoy his/her work and hence they are motivated to perform in the best interest of the organization. Fidel Castro displayed leadership traits very early in his childhood days by showing his determination and self- confidence. This came about during his early childhood days when his friends belonging to the upper class in society did not include him in their many social activities. (Marques, 2010). His leadership reflected the viewpoint from non-profits. Cuba has been a communist country from since 1950, when Fidel Castro took over the government in a rebellion. The concept of communism deals with equality for all and the distribution of wealth. Fidel believed in the equality and he saw the need to meet the needs of those who were less fortunate and those who needed to have the basic needs for survival. Hence the reason why Fidel implemented free health care systems for all Cubans and foreigners. Today, Cuba is known for performing many major surgeries. Children are given free education in primary and secondary level. There is one teacher to every ten Cuban students. Free tertiary education is also given. In terms of infrastructure, the roads in Cuba are adequate, although there are inadequate public transport systems in place. (The First Post, 2010). Communism and Socialism go hand in hand. Cuba is also termed as a socialist country. Under the socialist movement, the Cuban government owns the state and all its industries. The socialist movement allows Cubans to have free access to goods and services. The special needs of the oppressed are addressed under this system. In 1959, Fidel saw the need to socialize the economy because of the economic and political stronghold the United States of America had on Cuba. Fidel believed that the Cuba needed to trade in order to live and under the socialist system this was possible. By doing so, the standard of living was raised by the people of Cuba. The sectors in pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, technically and highly educated workforce, had set apart Cuba from the rest of the third world countries. These positives all occurred under the leadership of Fidel Castro. (Durand, 2003). The absence of participative management style Fidel Castro was known for his authoritative leadership style and therefore did not allow for participative management styles. He was very authoritative and he dictated all the policies and procedures. He directed and controlled all activities without the inclusion of his members of the government or the people of Cuba on a whole. The people of Cuba were not free to leave the country as they pleased. For example, going on a vacation to another country was not allowed. Cubans can travel only if the government authorizes them to do so. He did not include his ministers in his decision making process. He would make the decisions and then advise them. They were not allowed to dispute his decisions. Fidel did not share information with his colleagues. Therefore it was difficult for his Ministers to exhibit their skills and talents. His ministers were not allowed to determine work schedules for the development of Cuba, neither were they given enough opportunities to make decisions regarding the budget for the country. Fidel and his brother Raul made many of those decisions. This resulted in his ministers and followers were not motivated and they felt that they were not given the opportunity to be part of many of the decisions he made. Because of his leadership style, creativity and innovation were two crucial elements his ministers were lacking. The only time Fidel delegated his powers, was when he got sick and was unable to rule Cuba any longer. He delegated his power to his younger brother, Raul Castro. Raul was given the leadership by Fidel Castro. The people of Cuba were not given the opportunity to vote for a leader. In this instance we can conclude that nepotism was a factor in his decision making. (The First post, 2010). Participative management is very important in organizations because leaders and managers should seek to make the most of its followers. Their followers should be given the opportunity be part of the decision making process. By doing so, new ideas can be developed and implemented for the betterment of the organization. (Author unknown, 2010). Leader of change? Fidel Castro could not be considered a leader of change because he believed that his way is the right way and he believed in the communism concept. He wanted power over the entire Cuban nation and did not want any intrusion from the outside forces, especially the United States of America. He believed in what he stood for and was very rigid in his decision making process. His autocratic and dictatorship styles were strong indicators that Fidel did not want change in his way of thinking and his decision making process. Yes he wanted change in terms on wealth and property being evenly distributed throughout the country. When Fidel came into power, rent was cut by fifty percent (50%) for people who received low wages. He nationalized the telephone companies and the rates were cut in order that civilians were able to pay their utility bill. Casinos and nightclubs were closed down by Fidel because he saw those two institutions as corruption for the country. A high percentage of the Cuban population was illiterate. Many persons in rural areas could not read or write. Since Fidel took office, free education was given to all the people of Cuba. In terms of the health systems, new training schools were built for doctors. Infant mortality rate fell when he came into power. However, he did not want change in terms of another political party ruling Cuba. Fidel was of the opinion that his leadership style was best suited for the people of Cuba. He wanted change in terms of corruption. (Simkin, 2010). Fidel was adamant about remaining in power without any interference from outside sources and he strongly believed that his country should be ruled the way in which he ruled. Because of his strong will and influence on many of his followers, he did not want to be removed from power, because he believed that he was the best ruler for Cuba. Therefore, he did not want any changes to come about regarding his ruling or leadership style. He refused to hold free elections for the people of Cuba because he did not want change. (Simkin, 2010) How did Fidel Castro develop Raul to be a leader Fidel Castro relinquished his power in February 2008, to his brother Raul Castro and as stated earlier in this paper, the people of Cuba were not given an opportunity to vote. His brother Raul was placed in his position. Many of the people of Cuba believe that Raul has many character traits as his brother Fidel, hence the reason why Fidel handed over power to him. It is believed that Fidel and Raul have a very close relationship and that Raul will follow in his footsteps. During Fidels rule, Raul was the other person he would consult with whenever he would need to make a decision. Raul, like his brother Fidel is concerned about the distribution of food to individuals who face constant problems with shortages. This was also one of the factors that Fidel fought for his people. Raul under Fidels leadership believed in the same. Raul believed in the same ideologies as his brother Fidel. He also believed that Cuba should remain a communist state, because communism would allow for the people of Cuba to have equal rights. While Raul may aim to make minor changes in Cuba, one of the factors that would remain is the animosity between Cuba and the Unites States of America. It can be concluded that Raul being trained as leader under Fidel, this issue may take a very long time to resolve, it if will be resolved at all. While Fidel was in power, his brother Raul was laying the ground work for the rebuilding of Cubas economy. Fidel was able to suggest ideas to his brother Raul to be successful in this venture. (Roig-Franzia, 2008). Conclusion Fidel Castro used his strategic insight to work his way into ruling Cuba, when people were dissatisfied with the ruling of Batista. Today Fidel is still not liked by many Cubans because the people do not live in a democratic society. They are not free to live the lives like many other civilians in other parts of the world. Because of his resilience he did not allow the viewpoints of others which is one of the main reasons many Cubans fled the country. His overconfidence revealed superiority in knowledge and his stubborn practices caused him to rule with an iron fist. The paper also outlined how effective he was as a leader in terms of getting his followers to comply with his decisions and the cultural characteristics were also looked at, and how it helped him in his leadership style. The concepts of early theories were also outlined and in addition the sources of power and how he used his power to influence his followers. Fidel showed the transformational leader he was in terms of influencing his followers and paying attention to their ethics, long term goals and standard. Despite his autocratic ruling, he was a hard worker and he demonstrated it. He also demonstrated courage in that he took risks and knowing that his way may fail. Whenever he failed, he got right back up and tried again. In terms of communication, Fidel did little communication with his subordinates. He made his decisions and executed them whether or not his followers were pleased with them. He was determined, and had the willpower to rule Cuba and thus he fought the outsiders who tried to take over from his ruling. He was never discouraged by setbacks. He saw setbacks as part of the learning process. Fidel had both positive and negative traits as a leader. This was exemplified by his way of ruling Cuba. He is a well known politician, and will be remembered by the people of Cuba and the world on a whole. He will be remembered for his autocratic and dictatorship leadership styles. He will also be remembered for helping the less fortunate people of Cuba. He was an active member of the guerilla movement. This was a stepping stone to becoming political leader of his party and ruler of Cuba. Today, many believe that his brother Raul will rule Cuba the same way his brother did. Since Raul took over in 2008, there have not been many changes in the leadership style. Raul has inherited his brothers leadership qualities. (Marques, 2010)

A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning by John Donne Essay -- A Valedicti

â€Å"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,† by John Donne explores love through the ideas of assurance and separation. Donne uses vivid imagery to impart his moral themes on his audience. A truer, more refined love, Donne explains comes from a connection at the mind, the joining of two souls as one. Physical presence is irrelevant if a true marriage of the minds has occurred, joining a pair of lovers’ souls eternally. In order to describe the form which Donne gives to true love he chooses to create a scene of separation. He insists that when in love, absence is not a cause for despair. Stanza two describes the usual reaction lovers have to separation but explains that such reactions of tears and sighs do not prove one’s love but rather the opposite by suggesting that the relationship depends on a physical connection. In stanza three then he states that it is the connection at the mind which is important to a devoted love, and that when this emotional connection of the souls is attained then â€Å"eyes, lips, and hands,† are less to miss. Donne uses a compass to create a visual metaphor for their love. Although the two feet may be far apart, they are constantly joined in the center. This connection at the center is representative of the mental connection which is found at the center of true or refined love. Regardless of how far apart the feet of the compass may move, or how far apart lovers may travel, the connection which is the center of their relationship serves to hold and br...

Mass Media :: Violence Technology Papers

Mass Media Part I: The Problem. In the aftermath of the Columbine school shootings, parents were eager to find someone or something to take the blame for the tragedy. We as Americans are a culture that has to be able to control the outcome of our everyday lives. When something happens that catches us off guard, we get frightened and jump to conclusions. With no closure in sight from the columbine shootings, parents across the country wanted answers. Instead of evaluating their own parenting, people began to say that video games, movie and television were the problem. The idea was that by eliminating the violence on TV and that will stop kids from being violent. The news media, fearing for its ratings took this idea and ran with it doing in depth stories and all types of special reports. The goal of this newsletter is not to place blame on anyone, but to bring to the realization that the only way to help our youth is to not blame outside factors for behavior but approach the problem directly, in the home, face to face with the child. Columbine: The tragedy On a sunny spring day in April 1999, a suburban high school in Jefferson County, Colorado, found itself under attack by two of its own. In less than fifteen minutes of the first-lunch period on that Tuesday, two student gunmen killed 13 and wounded 21 before they turned the guns on themselves in the most devastating school shooting in U.S. history. Columbine High School is one of three in the unincorporated southeast portion of Jefferson County. The county itself lies on the west side of the Denver metropolitan area and is the most populated county in the state. The large unincorporated region along the county’s southern plains and foothills has a population of nearly 100,000 residents - 1,945 of who attended Columbine High School. The two student gunmen were Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold. Their plans for attacking the school, recovered by investigators after the tragedy had taken place, evolved over one year’s time. In those plans, Klebold and Harris outlined a mission to kill as many students and faculty as possible. They would set off destructive bombs inside the school and then shoot any survivors trying to run out. Bombs inside their cars would explode later, killing law enforcement, fire or medical personnel responding to the scene.

Children’s Literature Essay

It is hard to imagine a world without books for children. Ever since there were children, there has been children’s literature too. There have been children’s stories and folk-tales when man first learned to speak. Children’s books, however, are a late growth of literature. Miss Yonge says, â€Å"Up to the Georgian era there were no books at all for children or the poor, excepting the class-books containing old ballads and short tales†. We shall nevertheless see that there were English books for children long before this time. In western Europe, there was no separate category of books for children before the eighteenth century. The Bible, stories of saints and martyrs, and bestiaries or books about exotic animals, were probably the first printed books available to children. Childhood, as we think about it today, is a relatively new concept. Until the 17thcentury, children were thought of as small versions of adults and treated accordingly. In most societies, children were a source of labor. There were some books (mostly for the children of wealthy families) even before the invention of movable type by Gutenberg in 1455, but they were instructional in nature and were used to instill lessons of morality, manners, and religion.. With the rise of Puritanism in England early in the seventeenth century, literature for children became moralistic. Seeing children as amoral savages needing to be taught right, society used stories filled with death and damnation to frighten children into good behavior. Humor and imagination were banned. The Sunday School Movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, which aimed at bringing religion to the working class, continued the didactic tone in the thousands of cheap tracts of simple stories distributed throughout England and the United States. Over the next centuries, there was a gradual shift in attitude toward children which was reflected in the reading material produced for them. Hornbooks and chapbooks appeared, still designed to instruct, but some included woodcut illustrations in addition to ABCs and religious lessons. The most famous and prolific publisher for children of the 18th century was John Newbery. He published books which were immediately attractive to children: in a small format, with illustrations, and bound in brightly-coloured flowered paper. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Robin Hood, Mother Goose tales, Robinson Crusoe, and Gulliver’s Travels were published and were the most attractive to the world of a child’s imagination. † A Visit from St. Nicholas† by Clement C. Moore was published in 1823 and was one of the first works to introduce humor and laughter into the world of children’s literature. The Victorian era was a golden age for childrens’ books. Victorian family life is realistically depicted in Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women (1868), whereas Mark Twain’s Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and Robert Louis Stevenson’s Treasure Island (1880) emphasize adventure; all three books present fully developed characters. At the turn of the century several children’s magazines were being published, the most important being the St. Nicholas Magazine (1887–1943). It was also the time of classic books , such as Alice in Wonderland, and great illustrators– Kate Greenaway, Edward Lear, and Howard Pyle to mention a few. In the middle of the 19th century, there were major changes in illustrations of books. Until then, wood engraving was the norm; with the development of chromolithography, which permitted printing in many colors, the world of book illustration changed dramatically. Great writers teamed with great illustrators to produce the books. The industrial revolution led to advances in printing which made books colorful, affordable, and plentiful. The growing middle class, with its increased interest in education, expanded the audience for children’s books. Walter Crane, whose work is highlighted in this exhibit, was a British artist and one of the first people to use the new printing techniques to bring color and design techniques into the world of children’s literature. The twentieth century continued a publishing industry for young people with adventure stories, series books like the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew, science fiction and fantasy. During the 20th cent. in particular, new collections of tales that reach back to the oral roots of literature have come from Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. International folktales have also received increasing attention. Among the many authors pursuing these themes, Verna Aardema compiles African folktales and Yoko Kawashima Watkins studies Asian oral traditions. During the 1980s and 90s in particular, multicultural concerns became an important aspect of the new realistic tradition in children’s literature. From the 1960s through the 90s â€Å"socially relevant† children’s books have appeared, treating subjects like death, drugs, sex, urban crisis, discrimination, the environment, and women’s liberation. Recent years have brought books of children related to movies and commercial products from Disney to Star Wars as well as the psychologically-oriented young adult novel. The great scientific and societal changes of the early twentieth century had a great influence on the adventure story. The exploits of the World War I fliers replaced the cowboy and big game hunter in the dreams of young boys. Many of these adventure stories were published in long series, written by different writers all using the same name. The best known was the Stratemeyer Literary Syndicate which produced such series as the Rover Boys, the Hardy Boys, Tom Swift, the Bobbsey Twins, and Nancy Drew between 1906 and 1984. Maurice Sendak and Chris Van Allsburg are two important and contemporary children’s book author who publish their stories todays. Bibliographyh Hunt, Peter, (1995), Children’s Literature: An illustrated history, Oxford University Press. Cullingford , Cedric, (1998), Children’s Literature and its Effects, Cassel E. Gavin, Adrienne, (2001), Mystery in Children’s Literature. From the Rational to the Supernatural, Palgrave Publishers Ltd Lerer, Seth, (2008), Children’s Literature: A Readers’ History from Aesop to Harry Potter, University of Chicago Press. Lynch-brown, Carol, (2010), Essentials of children’s literature, Pearson O’Malley, Andrew, (2003), The Making of the Modern Child: Children’s Literature in the Late Eighteenth Century F. Touponce, William, Children’s Literature and the Pleasures of the Text, From: Children’s Literature Association Quarterly, Volume 20, Number 4, Winter 1995, pp. 175-182

Organ Selling

Name Term paper for Health Economics, Econ 339 Kidney for Sale: Is the Idea Legal, Ethical, or Economically Sound? Abstract: Each year thousands of people die while waiting for a kidney transplant. A market for kidney sales is currently illegal in nearly every country. This paper addresses the legal and ethical issues, as well as the economic effects that a legal market would create. The following aspects of such a market were explored: the ethical pros and cons; the current price ceiling for a legal kidney; the current supply and demand of donor kidneys; the fair market price; and the effect on supply and demand in a legalized market. The conclusion is that if paying a living donor can be made legal and as ethically acceptable as other medical practices, kidney sales would be economically sound. Keywords: Market for Organs, Health Market Reform, Sales of Organs 1 Introduction Should organ sales be legalized in the United States? In today’s society, many people are suffering from diseases and conditions that require an organ transplant in order to survive. The transplant list for those in need of a new organ such as a kidney seems endless. Every day, nearly 74 people receive an organ transplant, while each day another 17 people die waiting for their transplant due to the lack of donated organs (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). Why is the demand so large? Why are there not enough? Should someone be able to sell his organ to a person in need? Is it legal, ethical or even economically sound to create a market for the sale of a kidney? What economic effects might there be if kidney sales were legalized? In the past few decades, immunosuppressive therapy and improved organ transplant expertise have increased the survival rate of kidney transplant patients (Ghod & Shekoufeh, 2006). For end stage renal disease (ESRD), transplantation, not kidney dialysis, has become the preferred treatment, because it provides the patient with an improved survival rate and a better quality of life (Ghod & Shekoufeh, 2006). In turn, the number of patients with ESRD being treated by dialysis and waiting for transplantation continues to outstrip the donor pool of kidneys (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). The donor pool consists primarily of deceased donors and some live donors. Statistics show that only about 30% of Americans register to donate their organs after death (Knapp, 2005). Over the past ten years, the number of deceased donor kidneys has not increased despite efforts by the National Kidney Foundation, State Drivers License promotions, and celebrity ad campaigns (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). In First World and middle-income countries, the demand for donor kidneys has increased. The populations of these countries live longer and typically develop ailments such as hypertension and diabetes caused by obesity 2|Page which contribute to kidney failure (The Economist, 2008). Fewer deaths from strokes, heart attacks and motor vehicle accidents have reduced the supply of cadaver donors (The Economist, 2008). Each year, the wait list grows longer. Figure 1 illustrates that the demand for kidney transplants has grown faster than the actual supply of kidneys. As of January 2007, there were nearly 95,000 people waiting for an organ transplant (Bramstedt, 2007). In a one year period, 7,000 people died waiting. Of those 7,000, approximately 4,000 were waiting for a kidney (Bramstedt, 2007). The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) predicts that by 2010, there will be nearly 100,000 people who will have to wait an average of ten years for a renal transplant (Bramstedt, 2007). If this trend continues, the supply of kidneys will never come close to meeting the demand. Given this dilemma, it is necessary to at least consider other options to procuring the needed kidneys. 2 Legalizing Kidney Sales? A controversial solution is to lift the ban on purchasing kidneys from live donors, or permitting some type of compensation to the families of cadaver donors (Castro, 2003). Currently, the National Organ Transplant Act of 1984 (NOTA) deems the sale of organs unlawful and those who are found guilty of this act could be fined or sentenced to prison (Mayes, 2003). This ban on kidney sales in effect makes the maximum legal price for a kidney $0 (Cloutier, 2007). This is called a price ceiling. Figure 2 demonstrates that only 20,000 kidneys would be supplied through donation when the price is $0. However, 80,000 are demanded. This leaves a shortage of 60,000 kidneys which is the difference between the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied when the price is $0 (Cloutier, 2007). 3|Page Whether or not to reverse or amend this act has been a subject of great debate. There are numerous legal, ethical, and economic questions that are being argued by an array of experts. . 1 The arguments against legalization Opponents of kidney sales argue that this type of market would exploit the poor population (Erin & John, 2003). According to Nancy Scheper-Hughes, who is an anthropologist at the University of California, Berkeley, the demand for human organs would feed off the desperation of the poor who she believes would supply the majority of the organs (Hall, n. d. ). Scheper-Hughes states, â€Å"The organs are going one way. They’re going from poor people to rich people, from Third World to First World or to rich people in the Third World† (Hall, n. . ). Those who make this point believe it would be morally wrong for the wealthy to exploit the poverty of those who would supply the organs in a legalized market (Hall, n. d. ). A study of paid kidney donors in India showed that selling a kidney initially bettered their economic situation, but did not lead to a lifetime of economic benefit (Goyal, 2002). A second argument against legalizing kidney sales has been that the buying and selling of organs violates the dignity of the human person, and it treats the kidney like a commodity (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). Critics claim that the dignity of a human being is denied when his basic parts, such as kidneys, are sold even after he has died and no longer needs them (Castro, 2003). With respect to treating kidneys as a commodity, Scheper-Hughes who strongly objects to the legalization of kidney sales states, â€Å"It’s a question of whether you want to turn the body into a factory of spare parts that becomes simply comodified† (Hall, n. d. ). Although there are a variety of other opinions for not legalizing kidney sales, the two previously mentioned are the ones that are most frequently argued. |Page 2. 2 The arguments in favor of legalization Setting aside the major criticisms, some arguments in favor of kidney sales can be discussed. First, people have the autonomy or right to self-govern and make their own decisions about what is moral or ethical (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2008). Supporters of this opinion feel that it is not only ethical to sell a kidney, but a right because it is their body and their life. In his article, â€Å"Biotechnology, Ethics and Free Markets,† (2008) Julian Savulescu poses an interesting thought. He states, â€Å"But if you own anything, have a natural right to anything, it is surely your own body. Indeed the fact that we can give organs and parts of our body away implies that we own them. Giving implies ownership – if we can give, we can sell† (Salvulescu, 2008). People take all kinds of risks, including some for money. Some may choose risky jobs because they have determined that the money outweighs the risk (Erin & John, 2003). Others risk damaging their body for pleasure by participating in activities such as smoking or skydiving (Erin & John, 2003). Their activities would not be banned or judged. Friedman sums up the autonomy argument for permitting kidney sales. He states, â€Å"The case for legalizing kidney purchase hinges on the key premise that individuals are entitled to control of their own body parts even to the point of inducing risk of life† (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). A second reason that supports the legalization of kidney sales is financial incentives would lead to more donations, which in turn would save more lives. Dr. Arthur Matas proposes a plan in which donors would be able to sell a kidney. The government would set a price and the expenses would be paid for by the recipient’s health insurance, which would usually be Medicare (Perry, 2007). The sellers would be screened both medically and psychologically prior to the transplant. They would then be followed to determine the impact the sale had on their lives as well as their health (Perry, 2007). Mark J. Perry, a professor of economics and finance at 5|Page the University of Michigan, uses economics to show how a proposal such as Matas’s could increase the number of organs available for transplant. He explained that whenever there are shortages, market pricing is absent. Market pricing will reduce or eliminate shortages. Therefore, market pricing for kidneys would eliminate or reduce the shortage and save thousands of lives every year (Perry, 2007). A fair market minimum price, much like a minimum wage for labor, would prevent the poor from being taken advantage of, and give buyers a chance at life (Savulescu, 2008). A fair market price of $45,000 was suggested by the Nobel laureate (in economics) Becker (Savulescu, 2008). He based this fair market price on an average annual salary of $40,000, which would be a lifetime income of 3 million (Savulescu, 2008). He calculated the risk of death at 1%, and a 5% decrease in the quality of life during the recovery period, which equaled $7,000 (Savulescu, 2008). He adjusted the price of the fair market after calculating the true risk of death at about 1/300. This made the final fair market price $20,000 (Savulescu, 2008). Figure 3 illustrates what would happen if the ban on kidney sales was lifted (Cloutier, 2007). The graph indicates that at $30,000, the amount of kidneys supplied would meet the number of kidneys demanded. Also, as the amount of money paid per kidney rises, the number of kidneys supplied would increase. Therefore, the equilibrium would be reached at $30,000 thus eliminating the shortage (Cloutier, 2007). In short, payment for kidneys equals lives saved. The third reason to permit the sale of kidneys is that it would be a financial benefit for an insurance company or Medicare (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2006). Researchers at the University of Maryland School of Medicine determined that a kidney transplant not only improved the quality of life for their patients, but it also saved money (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2006). They found that it was cheaper to have a transplant than to stay on 6|Page kidney dialysis for years until a donor match was found (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2006). In fact, the researchers discovered the break even point was 2. 7 years, which saved the hospital about $27, 000 per year, per patient (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2006). Perhaps, even more significant was the finding that the use of living donor kidneys decreased costs because they functioned better than cadaver kidneys right after transplant (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2006). 3 Assessment A review of both sides of this issue leads to the conclusion that selling a kidney should be legal and ethical, and it would be economically favorable because it would benefit thousands of people. The first opposing view was that a market for kidney sales would exploit the poor population. This argument is faulty because being poor does not make a person incapable of making a rational decision (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). They are certainly able to weigh the risks of this choice. According to Savulescu (2008), â€Å"If altruistic donation is safe enough, then commercial donation should be just as safe if it is legalized. Also, keeping the poor population from being donors prevents them from improving their financial situation (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). Finally, the gap between supply and demand for a kidney also concerns the poor because it creates a situation where someone could take advantage of them (Economist, 2008). If a legal market was regulated, there would be less possibi lity for black market activities because there would be no direct sales or purchases. Therefore, there would be no exploitation of the poor in other countries (Erin & John, 2003). The second argument against legalizing kidney sales is that the buying and selling of organs violates the dignity of the human person, and it treats the kidney like a commodity (Friedman & Friedman, 2006). This position is also flawed. Savulescu (2008) states, â€Å"Where a 7|Page fair price is set, sellers are making judgments about how to promote their own well-being and other values. This is the expression of human dignity: to be autonomous. † Treating the kidney as a commodity is no different than the sale of hair, eggs, blood or semen. Currently, the sale of these bodily materials is legal and ethically accepted despite the fact that they are sold by an unequally large portion of people who are poor (Castro, 2003). 4 Conclusion If paying a living donor can be made legal and as ethically acceptable as other medical practices, kidney sales would be economically sound. Establishing a fair market price for a kidney would address concerns about equity and prevent exploitation by those in an illegal market (Savulescu, 2008). A fair market price would also likely entice more people to sell a kidney. This in turn would increase the supply, decrease the demand and eliminate the shortage. References (2008, October 9). The gap between supply and demand. Retrieved November 27, 2008, from Economist. com Web site: http://www. economist. com/world/international/ displaystory. cfm? story_id=12380981 Autonomy. (2008). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved November 28, 2008, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/autonomy Bramstedt, K (2007). Checklist: Passport, plane ticket, organ transplant. American Journal of Transplantation. 7(7), 1698-1701. 8|Page Castro, L. D. 2003). Commodification and exploitation: Arguments in favor of compensated organ donation. Journal of Medical Ethics. 29, 142-146. Doucet, B (2008). Kidney kingpin case highlights practical & ethical arguments for free markets. Retrieved November 25, 2008, from Quebecois Libre Web site: http://www. quebecoislibre. org/08/080210-4. htm Erin, C. A. , & Harris, J (2003). An ethical market in human organs. Jou rnal of Medical Ethics. 29, 137-138. Friedman, A. L (2006). Payment for living organ donation should be legalized. BMJ. 333, 746-748. Friedman, E. A. , & Friedman, A. L. , (2006). Payment for donor kidneys: Pros and cons. Kidney International, 69, 960-962. Ghods, A. J. , & Savaj, S (2006). Live kidney organ donation: Is it time for a different approach?. Clinical Journal of American Society of Nephrology. 1, 1136-1145. Goyal, M, Mehta, R. L, Schneiderman, L. J, & Sehgal, A. R. (2002). Economic and health consequences of selling a kidney in India. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1589-1593. Hall, Joseph (n. d. ). Opening up the market for organs: Support grows for selling body parts, donors for profit don't really benefit. Toronto Star. Knapp, T (2005, April 4). Organ agonistes. Retrieved September 17, 2008, from Free-Market News Network Web site: http://www. freemarketnews. com/ Analysis/118/1275/April-4 2005. asp? nid=1275=118 9|Page Mayes, G (2003). Buying and selling organs for transplantation in the United States. Medscape Transplantation, 4(2), Retrieved November 23, 2008, from http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/465200_print Perry, M (2007, December 13). Markets in everything: Organ sales. Retrieved November 24, 2008, from Carpe Diem Web site: http://mjperry. blogspot. com/2007/11/ markets-ineverything-organ-sales. tml Savulescu, Julian (2008, September 8). Biotechnology, ethics and free markets. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from University of Oxford Web site: http://www. practicalethicsnews. com/practicalethics/2008/06/setting-a-minim. html Savulescu, Julian (2008, June 19). Setting a minimum price for the sale of organs. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from University of Oxford Web site: http://www. practica lethicsnews. com/practicalethics/2008/06/setting-a-minim. html 10 | P a g e Appendix Figure 1: Illustrates that the wait list rises at a faster rate than the total number of transplants. Source: (Cloutier, 2007). Figure 2a: A price ceiling of $0 is established due to the ban on kidney sales. Source: (Cloutier, 2007). 11 | P a g e How many kidneys are demanded at P=$0? 20,000 kidneys supplied (donated) at P= $0 80,000 kidneys demanded at P= $0 Figure 2b: How many kidneys are supplied and demanded when the legal price is $0. Source: (Cloutier, 2007). What would happen if the ban on kidney sales was lifted? Figure 2c: Shows what would happen if the ban on kidney sales was lifted. Source: (Cloutier, 2007). 12 | P a g e